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| | |url= http://www.usatoday.com/life/theater/news/2008-12-25-pinter_N.htm | | |url= http://www.usatoday.com/life/theater/news/2008-12-25-pinter_N.htm |
| | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 | | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 |
| − | }}</ref> A less politically and emotionally charged, and more easily definable, term is [[violent non-state actor]]<ref name=tws11jan4eer>{{cite news | + | }}</ref> Un termino menos político y emocional y más facil de definir es [[actor no estatal violento]]<ref name=tws11jan4eer>{{cite news |
| | |author= Barak Mendelsohn | | |author= Barak Mendelsohn |
| | |title= Sovereignty under attack: the international society meets the Al Qaeda network (abstract) | | |title= Sovereignty under attack: the international society meets the Al Qaeda network (abstract) |
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| | |url= http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=14A39C376E92196BB12E57159E36C7DF.tomcat1?fromPage=online&aid=274626 | | |url= http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=14A39C376E92196BB12E57159E36C7DF.tomcat1?fromPage=online&aid=274626 |
| | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 | | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 |
| − | }}</ref> (though the semantic scope of this term includes not only "terrorists," while excluding some individuals or groups who have previously been described as "terrorists").{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} | + | }}</ref> (aunque los alcances semántico de este termino incluye no solamente "terroristas," mientras que se excluye algunos individuos o grupos que previamente han sido descritos como "terroristas"). |
| | | | |
| − | El terrorismo ha sido practicado por una amplia variedad de organizaciones políticas para poder avanzar a sus objetivos. Ha sido practicado desde la derecha y la izquierda, grupos nacionalistas, religiosas, revolucionarios y por gobiernos en el poder.<ref name="britannica">{{cite web |url= http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071797 |title=Terrorism |accessdate= 2006-08-11 |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica |page=3}}</ref> One form is the use of violence against [[noncombatant]]s for the purpose of gaining publicity for a group, cause, or individual.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asap-spssi.org/pdf/asap019.pdf |title=The Definition of Terrorism |format=PDF |year=2002 |first=Charles L. |last=Ruby |accessdate=2010-02-22}}</ref> | + | El terrorismo ha sido practicado por una amplia variedad de organizaciones políticas para poder avanzar a sus objetivos. Ha sido practicado desde la derecha y la izquierda, grupos nacionalistas, religiosas, revolucionarios y por gobiernos en el poder.<ref name="britannica">{{cite web |url= http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071797 |title=Terrorism |accessdate= 2006-08-11 |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica |page=3}}</ref> Una forma es el uso de la violencia contra [[no combatientes]] para el fin de ganar publicidad para un grupo, una causa o un individuo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asap-spssi.org/pdf/asap019.pdf |title=The Definition of Terrorism |format=PDF |year=2002 |first=Charles L. |last=Ruby |accessdate=2010-02-22}}</ref> |
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| | ==Origen del termino== | | ==Origen del termino== |
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| | }}</ref> Este significado se origina con Sergey Nechayev, quien se autollamó un "terrorista".<ref name="Crenshaw77">Crenshaw, Martha, ''Terrorism in Context'', p. 77.</ref> Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group "People's Retribution" (Народная расправа) in 1869. | | }}</ref> Este significado se origina con Sergey Nechayev, quien se autollamó un "terrorista".<ref name="Crenshaw77">Crenshaw, Martha, ''Terrorism in Context'', p. 77.</ref> Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group "People's Retribution" (Народная расправа) in 1869. |
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| − | In November 2004, a [[United Nations Secretary General]] report described terrorism as any act "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act".<!-- ''(Note that this report does not constitute [[international law]])'' -->.<ref>{{cite web |title=UN Reform |publisher=United Nations |date=2005-03-21 |url=http://www.un.org/unifeed/script.asp?scriptId=73 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070427012107/http://www.un.org/unifeed/script.asp?scriptId=73|archivedate=2007-04-27 |accessdate=2008-07-11 |quote=The second part of the report, entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism – an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community – as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act"}}</ref>
| + | En Noviembre del 2004, un informe del [[Secretario General]] de las [[Naciones Unidas]] describió el terrorismo como cualquier acto "con la intención de causar la muerte o heridos serios corporales a los [[civiles]] o [[no combatientes]] con el propósito de intimidar una población o forzar a un gobierno o una organización internacional hacer o abstener de hacer cualquier acto.<!-- ''(Anota, este informe no constituye parte del [[derecho internacional]])'' -->.<ref>{{cite web |title=UN Reform |publisher=United Nations |date=2005-03-21 |url=http://www.un.org/unifeed/script.asp?scriptId=73 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070427012107/http://www.un.org/unifeed/script.asp?scriptId=73|archivedate=2007-04-27 |accessdate=2008-07-11 |quote=La segunda parte del informe, con el titulo "Libertad de Miedo soporta la definición del terrorismo - un tema tan divisivo que por mucho tiempo ha eludido a la comunidad internacional - definindolo como un acto "con la intención de causar la muerte o heridos serios corporales a los [[civiles]] o [[no combatientes]] con el propósito de intimidar una población o forzar a un gobierno o una organización internacional hacer o abstener de hacer cualquier acto."}}</ref> |
| | | | |
| − | ==Definition== | + | ==Definición== |
| − | {{Main|Definition of terrorism}}
| + | La definición del terrorismo ha sido controversial. Varios sistemas legales y agencias de gobierno utilizan diferentes definiciones en su legislación nacional. Además, la comunidad internacional ha sido lento en formular una definición legal de este crimen. Estas dificultades surgen del hecho que el termino "terrorismo" está cargado, políticamente y emocionalmente.<ref name="Hoffman-1998-p32">Hoffman (1998), p. 32,ver [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html Inside Terrorism].</ref> En respecto a esto, Angus Martyn, frente al parlamento australiano, dijo que "la comunidad internacional nunca ha podido desarrollar una definición comprehensiva aceptada del terrorismo. Duranto los años 70 y 80, las Naciones Unidas intentó definir el termino pero falló principalmente por las diferencias de opinión entre varios miembros sobre el uso de la violencia en el contexto de conflictos sobre liberación nacional y [[autodeterminación]]."<ref>Martyn (2002)</ref> Estas divergencias lo ha hecho imposible para que las Naciones Unidas concluye una definición del terrorismo en la ley criminal.<ref>Diaz-Paniagua (2008), p. 47.</ref> Sin embargo, la comunidad internacional ha adoptada una serie de convenciones que definen y criminalizan a varios tipos de actividades terroristas. Además, desde 1994, la [[Asamblea General]] de las Naciones Unidas ha condenada en ocasiones repetidas a actos terroristas utilizando la descripción política del terrorismo: "Actos criminales con la intención o cálculo de provocar un estado de terror entre el público general, un grupo de personas o personas particulares por motivos políticos son en toda circunstancia sin justificación, sin respecto a las condieraciones políticas, filosóficas, ideológicas, raciales, étnicos, o de otro tipo que podría ser utilizado para justificarlos."<ref>1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60 ,"Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism," del 9 de diciembre, 1994, [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/49/a49r060.htm UN Doc. A/Res/60/49].</ref> |
| − | The [[definition of terrorism]] has proved controversial. Various legal systems and government agencies use different [[Anti-terrorism legislation|definitions of terrorism in their national legislation]]. Moreover, the International community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed, legally binding definition of this crime. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged.<ref name="Hoffman-1998-p32">Hoffman (1998), p. 32, See review in The [[New York Times]][http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html Inside Terrorism].</ref> In this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian Parliament, stated that "The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term foundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and [[self-determination]]."<ref>Martyn (2002)</ref> These divergences have made it impossible for the [[United Nations]] to conclude a [[Definition of terrorism#Proposed Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism|Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism]] that incorporates a single, all-encompassing, legally binding, criminal law definition terrorism.<ref>Diaz-Paniagua (2008), p. 47.</ref> Nonetheless, the [[international community]] has adopted a series of [[Definition of terrorism#The sectoral approach|sectoral conventions]] that define and criminalize various types of terrorist activities. Moreover, since 1994, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] has repeatedly condemned terrorist acts using the following political description of terrorism: "Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them."<ref>1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60 ,"Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism," of December 9, 1994, [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/49/a49r060.htm UN Doc. A/Res/60/49].</ref>
| |
| | | | |
| − | [[Bruce Hoffman]], a well-known scholar, has noted that:
| + | Bruce Hoffman, un experto reconocido en el tema, ha notado que: |
| | | | |
| − | {{quote|It is not only individual agencies within the same governmental apparatus that cannot agree on a single definition of terrorism. Experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a [[consensus]]. In the first edition of his magisterial survey, “Political terrorism: A Research Guide,” Alex Schmid devoted more than a hundred pages to examining more than a hundred different definition of terrorism in a effort to discover a broadly acceptable, reasonably comprehensive explication of the word. Four years and a second edition later, Schimd was no closer to the goal of his quest, conceding in the first sentence of the revised volume that the “search for an adequate definition is still on” Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his monumental work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt.”<ref>Bruce Hoffman, ''Inside terrorism'', 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 34.</ref>}} | + | {{quote|No son solamente las agencias individuales entre el mismo aparato del gobierno que no pueden acordar sobre una sola definición del terrorismo. Expertos y académicos de larga trayectoria en el campo están igualmente incapaces de llegar a un consenso. En la primera edición de su opus magnus, "Terrorismo político: Un guía de investigación", Alex Schmid dedicó más de 100 páginas para examinar más de cien definiciones diferentes del terrorismo en un esfuerzo de descubrir una explicación aceptada entre la mayoría de la palabra. Cuatro años y dos ediciones más tarde, Schmid no había llegado mas cerca al objetivo de su esfuerzo, concediendo que la primera frase de un volumen revisado que la "investigación para una definición adecuada sigue". Walter Laqueur desesperó de definir el terrorismo en ambas ediciones de su obra monumental en el tema, manteniendo que ni es posible hacerlo ni vale la pena intentarlo."<ref>Bruce Hoffman, ''Inside terrorism'', 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 34.</ref>}} |
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| − | Nonetheless, Hoffman himself believes it is possible to identify some key characteristics of terrorism. He proposes that:
| + | Sin embargo, Hoffman mismo sí cree que se puede identificar algunas caracteristicas claves del terrorismo. Él propone que: |
| | | | |
| − | {{quote|By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is : | + | {{quote|Distinguiendo los terroristas de otros tipos de criminales y el terrorismo de otros tipos de crimen, hemos llegado a apreciar que el terrorismo es: |
| − | * ineluctably [[political]] in aims and [[motive]]s | + | *sin duda política en sus objetivos y motivos |
| − | * violent – or, equally important, threatens [[violence]] | + | *violento - o, igualmente importante, amenaza [[violencia]] |
| − | * designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target | + | *diseñado tener impactos psicológicos de largo alcanze más allá de la victima o blanco inmediato |
| − | * conducted by an organization with an identifiable [[chain of command]] or [[Clandestine cell system|conspiratorial cell structure]] (whose members wear no [[uniform]] or identifying insignia) and | + | *llevado a cabo por una organización con una cadena de comando identificable o una estructura de celulas (con miembros que no visten de [[uniforme]] o ensignia identificable) y |
| − | * perpetrated by a subnational group or [[Non-state actor|non-state]] entity.<ref>Bruce Hoffman, ''Inside terrorism'', 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 41.</ref>}} | + | *perpetrado por un grupo sub-nacional o un [[actor no estatal]]<ref>Bruce Hoffman, ''Inside terrorism'', 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 41.</ref>}} |
| | | | |
| − | A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the [[George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies]], underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:
| + | Otra definición propuesta por Carsten Bockstette del George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies, subraya los aspectos psicológicos o tácticos del terrorismo: |
| | | | |
| − | {{quote|Terrorism is defined as political violence in an [[asymmetrical conflict]] that is designed to induce terror and psychic [[fear]] (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent [[victimisation|victimization]] and destruction of [[noncombatant]] [[Targeting (warfare)|targets]] (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the [[Media (communication)|media]] in order to achieve maximum attainable [[publicity]] as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm [[political]] goals and/or desired long-term end states."<ref name=Bockstette2008>{{cite journal |author = Bockstette, Carsten |year = 2008 |title = Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques |issue = 20 |url = http://www.marshallcenter.org/mcpublicweb/MCDocs/files/College/F_ResearchProgram/occPapers/occ-paper_20-en.pdf |accessdate = 2009-01-01 |journal = George C. Marshall Center Occasional Paper Series |issn = 1863-6039 |format=PDF}}</ref>}} | + | {{quote|El terrorismo se define como una violencia política en un [[conflicto asimétrico]] que está diseñado a inducir el terror y el miedo psíquico (aveces indiscriminadamente) a través de la victimización violenta y la destrucción de blancos [[no combatientes]]. Tales actos están intencionados a enviar un mensaje desde una organización ilicita clandestina. El propósito del terrorismo es explotar los [[medios de comunicación]] para poder alcanzar la publicidad máxima posible amplificando con fuerza para poder influir a la audiencia objetiva y llegar a objetivos políticos de corto y mediano alcance y/o estados finales de largo plazo."<ref name=Bockstette2008>{{cite journal |author = Bockstette, Carsten |year = 2008 |title = Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques |issue = 20 |url = http://www.marshallcenter.org/mcpublicweb/MCDocs/files/College/F_ResearchProgram/occPapers/occ-paper_20-en.pdf |accessdate = 2009-01-01 |journal = George C. Marshall Center Occasional Paper Series |issn = 1863-6039 |format=PDF}}</ref>}} |
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| − | Walter Laqueur, of the [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]], noted that "the only general characteristic of terrorism generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of violence".{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} This criterion alone does not produce, however, a useful definition, since it includes many violent acts not usually considered terrorism: [[war]], [[riot]], [[organized crime]], or even a simple [[assault]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} Property destruction that does not endanger life is not usually considered a [[violent crime]],{{Whom?|date=March 2010}} but some have described property destruction by the [[Earth Liberation Front]]<ref name=tws11jangjh>{{cite news | + | Walter Laqueur, del Center for Strategic and International Studies, anota que "la única característica general del terrorismo con que todos están de acuerdo involucra a la violencia y la amenaza de la violencia".{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} Sin embargo, este criterio solo no produce una definición útil, dado que incluye a muchos actos violentos no tipicamente considerados como el terrorismo: [[guerra]], [[desalojos]], [[crimen organizado]] o incluso [[asalto]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} La destrucción de la propiedad que no pone en peligro la vida no tipicamente se considera un [[crimen violento]], pero algunos han descrito la destrucción de la propiedad como terrorismo<ref name=tws11jangjh>{{cite news |
| | |author= Ronald Bailey | | |author= Ronald Bailey |
| | |title= Earth Liberation Front Terrorist Gets 22 Years in Prison for Anti-Biotech Arson | | |title= Earth Liberation Front Terrorist Gets 22 Years in Prison for Anti-Biotech Arson |
| − | |quote= Marie Mason decided to "elevate her grievances beyond the norms of civilized society" through fire and destruction, U.S. District Judge Paul Maloney said. The case _ which was prosecuted as domestic terrorism ... | + | |quote= Marie Mason decidió "elevar sus quejas más allá de las normas de una sociedad civilizada" a través de incendios y destrucción, dijo el juez distrital Paul Maloney. El caso fue procesado como terrorismo doméstico... |
| | |publisher= Reason Magazine | | |publisher= Reason Magazine |
| | |date= February 6, 2009 | | |date= February 6, 2009 |
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| | |url= http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/11/10/60minutes/main1036067.shtml | | |url= http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/11/10/60minutes/main1036067.shtml |
| | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 | | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 |
| − | }}</ref> as violence and terrorism; see [[eco-terrorism]]. | + | }}</ref> |
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| − | Terrorist attacks are usually carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact.<ref name=tws11janjlk>{{cite news
| + | Los ataques terroristas tipicamente se llevan a cabo de tal forma como para poder maximizar la severidad y tiempo del impacto psicológica.<ref name=tws11janjlk>{{cite news |
| | |author= Bruce Hoffman | | |author= Bruce Hoffman |
| | |title= The Logic of Suicide Terrorism | | |title= The Logic of Suicide Terrorism |
| − | |quote= ...terrorism is meant to produce psychological effects that reach far beyond the immediate victims of the attack. | + | |quote= ...el terrorismo debe producir efectos psicológicos que van más allá de las victimas inmediatas del ataque. |
| | |publisher= The Atlantic | | |publisher= The Atlantic |
| | |date= June 2003 | | |date= June 2003 |
| | |url= http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200306/hoffman | | |url= http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200306/hoffman |
| | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 | | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 |
| − | }}</ref> Each act of terrorism is a “performance” devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols,<ref name=tws11janbgfv>{{cite news | + | }}</ref> Cada acto de terrorismo es una "drama" diseñada tener un impacto sobre muchas audiencias grandes. Los terroristas también atacan a los simbolos nacionales,<ref name=tws11janbgfv>{{cite news |
| | |author= Rick Hampson | | |author= Rick Hampson |
| | |title= Statue of Liberty gets her view back | | |title= Statue of Liberty gets her view back |
| − | |quote= On Saturday, the statue, closed above its base since the terror attacks, will reopen to visitors — a relative few, in small groups, specially ticketed, carefully screened and escorted by a park ranger. | + | |quote= El sábado, la estatua, cerrada por encima de su base desde los ataques terroristas, volverán a abrir a visitantes - una cantidad relativamente pequeña, con tiquetes especiales, y revisados cuidadosamente y escoltados por un policia. |
| | |publisher= USA Today | | |publisher= USA Today |
| | |date= 2009-07-06 | | |date= 2009-07-06 |
| | |url= http://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2009-07-01-statue-of-liberty-crown_N.htm | | |url= http://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2009-07-01-statue-of-liberty-crown_N.htm |
| | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 | | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 |
| − | }}</ref> to show power and to attempt to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government, while increasing the prestige of the given [[terrorist organization]] and/or [[ideology]] behind a terrorist act.<ref>{{cite book |last=Juergensmeyer |first=Mark |title=Terror in the Mind of God |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2000 |pages=125–135}}</ref> | + | }}</ref> asi para mostrar su poder e intentar socovar la fundación de un país o una sociedad a que están opuestos. Esto puede tener un efecto negativo sobre un gobierno, mientras que aumenta el prestigio de la organización terrorista en cuestión y/o la ideología por atras del acto terrorista.<ref>{{cite book |last=Juergensmeyer |first=Mark |title=Terror in the Mind of God |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |pages=125–135}}</ref> |
| | | | |
| − | Terrorist acts frequently have a political purpose.<ref name=tws11janwq32>{{cite news
| + | Los actos terroristas frecuentemente tienen un fin político.<ref name=tws11janwq32>{{cite news |
| | |title= Number of Terrorist Attacks, Fatalities | | |title= Number of Terrorist Attacks, Fatalities |
| | |quote= The nation's deadliest terrorist acts – attacks designed to achieve a political goal | | |quote= The nation's deadliest terrorist acts – attacks designed to achieve a political goal |
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| | | first1=<Div | | | first1=<Div |
| | | last1=Style="Border-Top;">Source | | | last1=Style="Border-Top;">Source |
| − | }}</ref> Terrorism is a political tactic, like letter-writing or protesting, which is used by activists when they believe that no other means will effect the kind of change they desire.{{Whom?|date=March 2010}} The change is desired so badly that failure to achieve change is seen as a worse outcome than the deaths of civilians.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} This is often where the inter-relationship between [[religious terrorism|terrorism and religion]] occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into the framework of a religious or "cosmic"<ref>{{cite book |last=Juergensmeyer |first=Mark |title=Terror in the Mind of God |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000}}</ref> struggle, such as over the control of an ancestral homeland or holy site such as Israel and Jerusalem, failing in the political goal (nationalism) becomes equated with spiritual failure, which, for the highly committed, is worse than their own death or the deaths of innocent civilians.<ref name=tws11jang555>{{cite news | + | }}</ref> El terrorismo es un tactico político, así como escribir cartas al editor o protestar, cual se utilizan los activistas cuando creen que ninguna otra táctica efectuará el tipo de cambio que desean. El cambio se desea tanto que el fracaso en alcanzar el cambio se ve como un resultado peor que las muertes de civiles. Esto es en donde frecuentemente la inter-relación entre el terrorismo religioso y la religión ocurre. Cuando una lucha política está integrada entre el marco de una lucha religiosa, tal como sobre el control de una tierra ancestral o un sitio sagrado como Israel y Jerusalén, fracasar en el objetivo político (el nacionalismo) resulta ser igual que un fracaso espiritual, cual, para los altamente comprometidos, es peor que su propio muerte o las muertes de [[civiles]] inocentes.<ref name=tws11jang555>{{cite news |
| | |author= Alexander Stille | | |author= Alexander Stille |
| | |title= Historians Trace an Unholy Alliance; Religion as the Root Of Nationalist Feeling | | |title= Historians Trace an Unholy Alliance; Religion as the Root Of Nationalist Feeling |
| − | |quote= ''Now the context in which we see nationalism has completely changed,'' he said. Faced with the threat of Islamic fundamentalism, the West is more open to looking at the role of religion in the formation of nationalism. | + | |quote= ''Ahora el contexto en que vemos el nacionalismo ha cambiado por completo'', dijo. Enfrentado con la amenaza del fundamentalismo islamico, el Occidente está más abierto a revisar el papel de la religión en la formación del nacionalismo. |
| | |publisher= The New York Times | | |publisher= The New York Times |
| | |date= May 31, 2003 | | |date= May 31, 2003 |
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| | }}</ref> | | }}</ref> |
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| − | Very often, the victims of terrorism are targeted not because they are threats, but because they are specific "symbols, tools, animals or corrupt beings"{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} that tie into a specific view of the world that the terrorists possess. Their suffering accomplishes the terrorists' goals of instilling fear, getting their message out to an audience or otherwise satisfying the demands of their often radical religious and political agendas.<ref>{{cite book |last=Juergensmeyer |first=Mark|title=Terror in the Mind of God |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |pages=127–128}}</ref>
| + | Muy frecuentemente, las victimas del terrorismo son objetivos no por ser amenazas, si no porque son "simbolos, herramientas, animales o seres corruptos" específicos que están ligados a un punto de vista específico del mundo que los terroristas poseen. Su sufrimiento logra los objetivos terroristas de infundir el miedo, haciendo difundir su mensaje entre una audiencia o de otra manera satisfaciendo las demandas de sus agendas radicales religiosas y políticas.<ref>{{cite book |last=Juergensmeyer |first=Mark|title=Terror in the Mind of God |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |pages=127–128}}</ref> |
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| − | Some official, governmental definitions of terrorism use the criterion of the illegitimacy or unlawfulness of the act.<ref>{{cite web |title=Terrorism in the United States 1999 |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |url=http://www.fbi.gov/publications/terror/terror99.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-07-11}}</ref>{{Better source|date=March 2010}} to distinguish between actions authorized by a government (and thus "lawful") and those of other actors, including individuals and small groups. Using this criterion, actions that would otherwise qualify as terrorism would not be considered terrorism if they were government sanctioned.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} For example, firebombing a city, which is designed to affect civilian support for a cause, would not be considered terrorism if it were authorized by a government.{{Or|date=March 2010}} This criterion is inherently problematic and is not universally accepted,{{Attribution needed|date=March 2010}} because: it denies the existence of [[state terrorism]];<ref name=tws11jan6yu>{{cite news
| + | Algunas definiciones oficiales, gubernamentales, utilizan los criterios de la ilegitimidad o criminalidad del acto<ref>{{cite web |title=Terrorism in the United States 1999 |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |url=http://www.fbi.gov/publications/terror/terror99.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-07-11}}</ref>{{Better source|date=March 2010}} para poder distinguir entre acciones autorizadas por un gobierno (y por ende "legal") y las acciones de otros actores, incluyendo a individuos o grupos pequeños. Utilizando este criterio, acciones que de otra manera calificaría como terrorismo no considerarían el terrorismo si tuvieron la aprobación del gobierno. Por ejemplo, bombardear una ciudad entera, con la intención de afectar el apoyo civil para una causa, no se consideraría ser terrorismo si fuera autorizado por un gobierno. Este criterio es inherentemente problemático y no se acepta universalmente por lo que rechaza la existencia de [[terrorismo de estado]].<ref name=tws11jan6yu>{{cite news |
| | |title= Iraq accuses US of state terrorism | | |title= Iraq accuses US of state terrorism |
| − | |quote= Iraq has accused the United States of state terrorism amid signs that the war of words between the two countries is heating up. | + | |quote= Iraq ha acusado a los Estados Unidos de terrorismo de estado entre señales que la guerra de palabras entre los dos paises está calentando. |
| | |publisher= BBC News | | |publisher= BBC News |
| | |date= 2002-02-20 | | |date= 2002-02-20 |
| | |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1830640.stm | | |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1830640.stm |
| | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 | | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 |
| − | }}</ref> the same act may or may not be classed as terrorism depending on whether its sponsorship is traced to a "legitimate" government; "legitimacy" and "lawfulness" are subjective, depending on the perspective of one government or another; and it diverges from the historically accepted meaning and origin of the term.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=AskOxford Search Results – terrorist |encyclopedia=AskOxford |publisher=AskOxford |accessdate=2008-07-11 |url=http://www.askoxford.com/results/?view=dev_dict&field-12668446=terrorism&branch=13842570&textsearchtype=exact&sortorder=score%2Cname}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=82104&dict=CALD |title=Cambridge International Dictionary of English |publisher=Dictionary.cambridge.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/terrorism |title=Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |date=1979-10-20 |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=terrorism |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date=1979-10-20 |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref> | + | }}</ref> Un mismo acto puede o no ser clasificado como terrorismo dependiendo en si su espónsor es un gobierno "legítimo". La legitimidad o legalidad es sujetivo, dependiendo en la perspectiva de un gobierno u otro; y se diverge del significado históricamente aceptado y el origen del termino.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=AskOxford Search Results – terrorist |encyclopedia=AskOxford |publisher=AskOxford |accessdate=2008-07-11 |url=http://www.askoxford.com/results/?view=dev_dict&field-12668446=terrorism&branch=13842570&textsearchtype=exact&sortorder=score%2Cname}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=82104&dict=CALD |title=Cambridge International Dictionary of English |publisher=Dictionary.cambridge.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/terrorism |title=Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |date=1979-10-20 |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=terrorism |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date=1979-10-20 |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref> |
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| − | Among the various definitions there are several that do not recognize the possibility of [[Right to resist occupation|legitimate use of violence]] by civilians against an invader in an [[occupied territories|occupied country]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} Other definitions would label as terrorist groups only the [[resistance movement]]s that oppose an invader with violent acts that undiscriminately kill or harm civilians and non-combatants, thus making a distinction between lawful and unlawful use of violence.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} According to Ali Khan, the distinction lies ultimatedly in a [[politics|political]] judgment.<ref>{{cite web |last=Khan |first=Ali |title=A Theory of International Terrorism |publisher=Social Science Research Network |year=1987 |url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=935347 |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-07-11}}</ref>
| + | Entre la variedad de definiciones existentes hay varios que no reconocen a la posibilidad de un [[uso legítimo de la violencia]] por la parte de civiles frente a un invasor de un [[territorio ocupado]]. Otras definiciones nombraría a grupos terroristas unicamente un movimiento de resistencia que opone a un invasor con actos violentos que matan o hacen daños a los [[civiles]] o [[no combatientes]] de manera indiscriminada, asi permitiendo una distinción entre el uso legal e illegal de la violencia. Según Ali Khan, la distinción cae en un juicio político.<ref>{{cite web |last=Khan |first=Ali |title=A Theory of International Terrorism |publisher=Social Science Research Network |year=1987 |url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=935347 |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-07-11}}</ref> |
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| − | ==Pejorative use== | + | ==Uso negativo== |
| − | The terms "terrorism" and '''"terrorist"''' (someone who engages in terrorism) carry strong negative connotations.<ref name=tws11jangkll>{{cite news
| + | Los terminos "terrorismo" y "terrorista" (alguien involucrado en el terrorismo) llevan conotaciones negativas fuertes.<ref name=tws11jangkll>{{cite news |
| | |author= Bob Thompson | | |author= Bob Thompson |
| | |title= Hollywood on Crusade | | |title= Hollywood on Crusade |
| − | |quote= ... terrorism. He was widely chastised for using a word that carries major negative connotations ... | + | |quote= ... terrorismo. Fue ampliamente criticado por utilizar una palabra que lleva conotaciones negativas importantes... |
| | |publisher= Washington Post | | |publisher= Washington Post |
| | |date= May 1, 2005 | | |date= May 1, 2005 |
| | |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/29/AR2005042900744.html | | |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/29/AR2005042900744.html |
| | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 | | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 |
| − | }}</ref> These terms are often used as political labels, to condemn violence or the threat of violence by certain actors as immoral, indiscriminate, unjustified or to condemn an entire segment of a population.<ref>[http://www.btselem.org/english/Special/20080113_Response_to_Head_of_GSS_Statement.asp B'Tselem] Head of ISA defines a terrorist as any Palestinian killed by Israel.</ref> Those labeled "terrorists" by their opponents rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other terms or terms specific to their situation, such as [[separatist]], [[freedom fighter]], liberator, [[revolutionary]], [[vigilante]], [[militant]], [[paramilitary]], [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]], [[rebellion|rebel]], [[patriot]], or any similar-meaning word in other languages and cultures. [[Jihad]]i, [[mujaheddin]], and [[fedayeen]] are similar Arabic words which have entered the English lexicon. It is common for both parties to a conflict to describe each other as terrorists.<ref name=tws11janbcvc>{{cite news | + | }}</ref> Estos terminos frecuentemente están utilizadados como terminos políticos, para poder condenar violencia o la amenaza de violencia por ciertos actores como inmoral, indiscriminado, injustificado o para condenar un segmento amplio de la población.<ref>[http://www.btselem.org/english/Special/20080113_Response_to_Head_of_GSS_Statement.asp B'Tselem] Head of ISA defines a terrorist as any Palestinian killed by Israel.</ref> Algunos llamados "terroristas" por sus opositores raramente se identifican como tal, y tipicamente utilizan a otros terminos especificos a su situación, tal como separatista, luchador para la liberación, liberador, revolucionario, vigilante, militante, paramilitar, guerrillero, patriota u otra palabra con un significado diferente. Jihadi, mujaheddin y fedayeen son palabras arabes que han entrado en uso general en el mundo. Es común que ambas partes en un conflicto describan al lado contrario como terroristas.<ref name=tws11janbcvc>{{cite news |
| | |author= Paul Reynolds, quoting David Hannay, Former UK ambassador | | |author= Paul Reynolds, quoting David Hannay, Former UK ambassador |
| | |title= UN staggers on road to reform | | |title= UN staggers on road to reform |
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| − | On the question of whether particular terrorist acts, such as killing civilians, can be justified as the lesser evil in a particular circumstance, philosophers have expressed different views: while, according to David Rodin, [[utilitarian]] philosophers can (in theory) conceive of cases in which the evil of terrorism is outweighed by the good which could not be achieved in a less morally costly way, in practice the "harmful effects of undermining the convention of non-combatant immunity is thought to outweigh the goods that may be achieved by particular acts of terrorism".<ref name="Robin">Rodin, David (2006). Terrorism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.</ref> Among the non-utilitarian philosophers, [[Michael Walzer]] argued that terrorism can be morally justified in only one specific case: when "a nation or community faces the extreme threat of complete destruction and the only way it can preserve itself is by intentionally targeting non-combatants, then it is morally entitled to do so".<ref name="Robin"/><ref name=tws11jannmllk>{{cite news
| + | Sobre la pregunta de si algunos actos terroristas en particular, por ejemplo matar a civiles, puede ser justificado como el mal menor debajo de ciertas circunstancias, los filosofos han expresado varios puntos de vista: mientras que, según David Rodin, los filosofos utilitarianos pueden (en teoria) concebir de casos en donde la maldad del terrorismo es pasado por el bien que no podría ser logrado de una manera menos costoso en terminos morales, en la práctica "los efectos dañinos de romper la convención de inmunidad de no combatientes está pasado por el bien que puede ser logrado por actos particulares de terrorismo".<ref name="Robin">Rodin, David (2006). Terrorism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.</ref> Entre los filosofos no utilitarianos, Michael Walzer argumentó que el terrorismo puede ser justificado moralmente solamente con un solo caso: cuando "un pais o comunidad enfrente a la amenaza extrema de su destrucción completa y la única manera de que se preserva es con atacar intencionalmente a no combatientes, en ese caso tiene el caso moral para hacerlo".<ref name="Robin"/><ref name=tws11jannmllk>{{cite news |
| | |author= Peter Steinfels | | |author= Peter Steinfels |
| | |title= Beliefs; The just-war tradition, its last-resort criterion and the debate on an invasion of Iraq. | | |title= Beliefs; The just-war tradition, its last-resort criterion and the debate on an invasion of Iraq. |
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| | }}</ref> | | }}</ref> |
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| − | In his book ''Inside Terrorism'' [[Bruce Hoffman]] offered an explanation of why the term ''terrorism'' becomes distorted:
| + | En su libro, ''Inside Terrorism'', Bruce Hoffman ofreció una explicación de por qué el termino ''terrorismo'' vuelve distorcionado: |
| − | {{cquote|On one point, at least, everyone agrees: ''terrorism'' is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' [[Brian Jenkins]] has written, 'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label ''terrorist'' to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization ''terrorist'' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.<ref name=tws11jant5r4>{{cite news | + | {{cquote|Sobre un punto, por lo menos, todos están de acuerdo: ''terrorismo'' es un termino negativo. Es una palabra con un significado intrinsicamente negativo que generalmente es aplicado a los enemigos u opositores, o a alguien con quien uno está en desacuerdo y que prefirirían ignorar. 'Que se llama el terrorismo', ha escrito Brian Jenkins, 'por ende parece depender en el punto de vista de uno. El uso del termino implica un juicio moral; y si una parte puede poner el llamativo ''terrorista'' a su opositor, indirectamente ha persuadido a otros a adoptar a su punto de vista moral.' Por este motivo, la decisión de llamar a alguien o a alguna organización como ''terrorista'' vuelve inevitablemente sujetivo, dependiendo en gran parte sobre si alguien tiene simpatias con o está en oposición a una persona/grupo/causa en cuestión. Si alguien identifica con la victima de la violencia, por ejemplo, luego el acto es terrorismo. Si, al contrario, alguien se identifique con el perpetrador, el acto violento está considerado de una manera más simpática, o si no positiva (por lo menos ambivalente); y no es terrorismo.<ref name=tws11jant5r4>{{cite news |
| | |author= Bruce Hoffman | | |author= Bruce Hoffman |
| | |title= Inside Terrorism | | |title= Inside Terrorism |
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| | }}</ref>}} | | }}</ref>}} |
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| − | The pejorative connotations of the word can be summed up in the [[aphorism]], "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter".<ref name=tws11janbcvc/> This is exemplified when a group using [[irregular military]] methods is an ally of a [[Sovereign state|state]] against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the state and starts to use those methods against its former ally. During [[World War II]], the [[Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army]] was allied with the British, but during the [[Malayan Emergency]], members of its successor (the [[Malayan Races Liberation Army]]), were branded "terrorists" by the British.<ref>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371060/Malayan-People's-Anti-Japanese-Army Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army] Britannica Concise.</ref><ref>Dr Chris Clark ''{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/malaya/index.htm |title= Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070608150502/http://awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/malaya/index.htm |archivedate=2007-06-08}}'', 16 June 2003.</ref> More recently, [[Ronald Reagan]] and others in the American administration frequently called the [[mujaheddin#Afghan Mujahideen|Afghan Mujahideen]] "freedom fighters" during [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|their war]] against the [[Soviet Union]],<ref>[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAreagan.htm Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference] 8 March 1985. On the [[Spartacus Educational]] web site.</ref> yet twenty years later, when a new generation of Afghan men are fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers, their attacks are labelled "terrorism" by [[George W. Bush]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020128-13.html |title=President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman |publisher=Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov |date=2002-01-29 |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref><ref>[http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/02/20060209-2.html President Discusses Progress in War on Terrorism to National Guard] [[White House]] web site February 9, 2006.</ref> Groups accused of terrorism understandably prefer terms reflecting legitimate military or ideological action.<ref>Sudha Ramachandran ''[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FK12Ak01.html Death behind the wheel in Iraq]'' [[Asian Times]], November 12, 2004, "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..."</ref><ref>Alex Perry [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1109554,00.html How Much to Tip the Terrorist?] [[Time Magazine]], September 26, 2005. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term “freedom fighters.”</ref><ref name="TCCACR">[http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/dtra/terrorism_concepts.doc Terrorism: concepts, causes, and conflict resolution] [[George Mason University]] [[Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution]], Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003.</ref> Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's [[Carleton University]], defines "terrorist acts" as attacks against civilians for political or other ideological goals, and said:
| + | El significado negativo de la palabra se puede resumir en el aforismo, "El terrorista de un hombre es el luchador de liberació de otro."<ref name=tws11janbcvc/> Esto se ejemplifica cuando un grupo utilizando metodos [[irregulares]] es un aliado de un estado soberano frente a un enemigo mutuo, pero luego pierde su estátus con el estado y empieza a utilizar los mismos metodos frente a su ex-aliado. Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el Ejército del Pueblo Malaya Anti-Japonés estaba aliado con los británicos, pero luego su sucesor fue considerado "terrorista" por los británicos.<ref>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371060/Malayan-People's-Anti-Japanese-Army Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army] Britannica Concise.</ref><ref>Dr Chris Clark ''{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/malaya/index.htm |title= Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070608150502/http://awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/malaya/index.htm |archivedate=2007-06-08}}'', 16 June 2003.</ref> |
| − | {{cquote|There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless.<ref>Humphreys, Adrian. [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=a64f73d2-f672-4bd0-abb3-2584029db496 "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'"], ''[[National Post]]'', January 17, 2006.</ref>}}
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| − | Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called "terrorists" by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called "statesmen" by similar organizations. Two examples of this phenomenon are the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] laureates [[Menachem Begin]] and [[Nelson Mandela]].<ref>Theodore P. Seto ''[http://llr.lls.edu/volumes/v35-issue4/seto.pdf The Morality of Terrorism]'' Includes a list in the [[Times]] published on July 23, 1946 which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun which Begin was a leading member.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/israel_at_50/profiles/81305.stm BBC News: Profiles: Menachem Begin] BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence."</ref><ref>Eqbal Ahmad ''"[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-1328039/Straight-talk-on-terrorism.html Straight talk on terrorism]"'' [[Monthly Review]], January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin".</ref><ref>Lord Desai [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199798/ldhansrd/vo980903/text/80903-04.htm Hansard, House of Lords] 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "''However, Jomo Kenyatta, [[Nelson Mandela]] and [[Menachem Begin]] — to give just three examples — were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom.''"</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4255106.stm BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response] BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1454208.stm BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela] BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman".</ref>
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| − | Sometimes states which are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether or not members of a certain organization are terrorists. For instance, for many years, some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Irish Republican Army]] (IRA) as terrorists while the IRA was using methods against one of the United States' closest allies (Britain) which Britain branded as terrorism. This was highlighted by the [[Quinn v. Robinson]] case.<ref>[http://www.law.syr.edu/faculty/arzt/icl/quinn.pdf Quinn v. Robinson (pdf), 783 F2d. 776 (9th Cir. 1986)](PDF), web site of the [[Syracuse University College of Law]].</ref><ref>Page 17, [http://www.law.du.edu/ilj/online_issues_folder/mccabe.final.4.26.03.pdf Northern Ireland: TP , T , S 11] (PDF) [[Queen's University Belfast]] School of Law.</ref>
| + | Algunos estados que son aliados cercanos, por motivos de historia, cultura y política, pueden tener desacuerdos sobre si miembros de ciertas organizaciones son terroristas o no. Por ejemplo, durante muchos años, muchas partes del gobierno estadounidense rehuso nombrar a miembros del ejército repúblicano irlandes como terrorista, a pesar de su oposición a un aliado cercano, bretaña. |
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| − | For these and other reasons, media outlets wishing to preserve a reputation for impartiality try to be careful in their use of the term.<ref name="GUSG">{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/styleguide/page/0,5817,184833,00.html |title=Guardian Unlimited style guide |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=2008-12-19 |accessdate=2010-04-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/assets/advice/guidanceontheuseoflanguagewhenreportingterrorism.doc |title=BBC editorial guidelines on the use of language when reporting terrorism |format=DOC}}</ref>
| + | Por estos motivos, muchos medios que desean mantener una reputación para la imparcialidad pueden terminar siendo cuidadoso en su uso del termino.<ref name="GUSG">{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/styleguide/page/0,5817,184833,00.html |title=Guardian Unlimited style guide |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=2008-12-19 |accessdate=2010-04-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/assets/advice/guidanceontheuseoflanguagewhenreportingterrorism.doc |title=BBC editorial guidelines on the use of language when reporting terrorism |format=DOC}}</ref> |
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| − | ==Types of Terrorism== | + | ==Tipos de terrorismo== |
| | + | En 1975, el Instituto Nacional de Justicia de los EEUU formo el Comité Consejero Nacional sobre los Estándares y Goles de la Justicia Criminal. Entre los cinco ediciones que escribió el comité, fue ''Desordenes y Terrorismo'', producido por la Fuerza Conjunta sobre Desordenes y Terrorismo debajo de H.H.A. Cooper, Director de la Fuerza.<ref>Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976).</ref> |
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| − | In early 1975, the [[National Institute of Justice|Law Enforcement Assistant Administration]] in the United States formed the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes that the committee wrote was entitled ''Disorders and Terrorism'', produced by the Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction of H.H.A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force staff.<ref>Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976).</ref>
| + | Este grupo clasificó el terrorismo entre seis categorias: |
| − | The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.
| + | #'''Desorden civil''' - una forma de violencia colectiva interfiriendo con la paz, la seguridad y el funcionamiento normal de la comunidad. |
| − | * '''Civil disorder''' – A form of collective violence interfering with the [[peace]], [[security]], and normal functioning of the community.
| + | #'''Terrorismo político''' - comportamiento criminal violento diseñado principalmente a generar miedo en la comunidad, o un segmento sustancial de ella, para fines políticos |
| − | * '''Political terrorism''' – [[Violence|Violent]] criminal behavior designed primarily to generate [[fear]] in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
| + | #'''Terrorismo no político''' - terrorismo sin fines políticos pero cual exhibe "un diseño conciente de crear y mantener un alto grado de miedo para propositos coercitivos, pero el fin es ganancia individual o colectiva en lugar de lograr un objetivo político." |
| − | * '''Non-Political terrorism''' – Terrorism that is not aimed at [[politics|political]] purposes but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain a high degree of fear for [[coercion|coercive]] purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective.”
| + | #'''Cuasi-terrorismo''' - las actividades incidentales a la comisión de un crimen violento que son similares en forma y metodo al terrorismo auténtico pero cual sin embargo faltan su ingrediente esencial. No es el fin principal de los cuasi-terroristas inducir el terror en la víctima inmediata como es el caso en el terrorismo auténtico, pero el cuasi-terrorista utiliza las modalidades y técnicas del terrorista auténtica y produce consecuencias y reacciones similares.<ref name=tws11janvccx>{{cite news |
| − | * '''Quasi-terrorism''' – The activities incidental to the commission of [[crime]]s of [[violence]] that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction.<ref name=tws11janvccx>{{cite news
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| | |title= 13 Beagles Stolen From Researchers | | |title= 13 Beagles Stolen From Researchers |
| | |quote= Animal-rights proponents have removed 13 beagles used for medical research ... A campus spokeswoman, Kathy Jones, called the theft a ''quasi-terrorist'' act. | | |quote= Animal-rights proponents have removed 13 beagles used for medical research ... A campus spokeswoman, Kathy Jones, called the theft a ''quasi-terrorist'' act. |
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| | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 | | |accessdate= 2010-01-11 |
| − | }}</ref> For example, the fleeing [[felony|felon]] who takes [[hostage]]s is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different. | + | }}</ref>Por ejemplo el fugitivo que toma un [[rehén]] que sea un cuasi-terrorista, que tiene metodologías parecidas al terrorista genuino pero con propósitos bastante distintos. |
| − | * '''Limited political terrorism''' – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a [[revolutionary]] approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which are committed for [[ideology|ideological]] or [[politics|political]] motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the [[Sovereign state|state]]. | + | *'''Terrorismo político limitado''' - el terrorismo político genuino se caracteriza por una metodología [[revolucionaria]]; el terrorismo político limitado se hace referencia a "actos de terrorismo cual se compromete por motivos ideológicos o políticos pero que no sean parte de una campaña concertada de capturar control del estado soberano. |
| − | * '''Official or state terrorism''' –"referring to nations whose rule is based upon [[fear]] and [[oppression]] that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.” It may also be referred to as '''Structural Terrorism''' defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy. | + | *'''Terrorismo de estado''' - "referiendose a las naciones que tienen un regimen basado sobre el miedo y la opresión que alcanzan al terrorismo o en tales proporciones." También puede hacer referencia al '''terrorismo estructural''' definido ampliamente como actos terroristas llevados a cabo por gobiernos en busqueda de objetivos políticos, frecuentemente como parte de su política extranjera. |
| | | | |
| − | Several sources<ref>Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press, 2002.</ref><ref>Barry Scheider, Jim Davis, ''Avoiding the abyss: progress, shortfalls and the way ahaed in combatting the WMD threat'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009 p. 60.</ref> have further defined the typology of terrorism:
| + | Varias fuentes<ref>Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press, 2002.</ref><ref>Barry Scheider, Jim Davis, ''Avoiding the abyss: progress, shortfalls and the way ahaed in combatting the WMD threat'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009 p. 60.</ref> han definido una tipología más allá para el terrorismo: |
| − | * Political terrorism | + | *Terrorismo político |
| − | **Sub-state terrorism | + | **Terrorismo sub-estatal |
| − | ***Social revolutionary terrorism | + | ***Terrorismo revolucionario social |
| − | ***Nationalist-separatist terrorism | + | ***Terrorismo nacionalista-separatista |
| − | ***Religious extremist terrorism | + | ***Terrorismo extremista religiosa |
| − | ****Religious fundamentalist Terrorism | + | ****Terrorismo fundamentalista religiosa |
| − | ****New religions terrorism | + | ****Terrorismo de nuevas religiones |
| − | ***Right-wing terrorism | + | ***Terrorismo de derecha |
| − | ***Left-wing terrorism | + | ***Terrorismo de izquierda |
| − | ***Single-issue terrorism | + | ***Terrorismo por tema |
| − | **State-sponsored terrorism | + | **Terrorismo de estado |
| − | **Regime or state terrorism | + | **Terrorismo estatal o de regimen |
| − | *Criminal terrorism | + | *Terrorismo criminal |
| − | *Pathological terrorism | + | *Terrorismo patológico |
| | | | |
| − | ===Democracy and domestic terrorism=== | + | ==Referencias== |
| − | The relationship between domestic terrorism and democracy is very complex. Terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom, and is least common in the most democratic nations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-terror.html |title=Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf |title=www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-terror.html |title=Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-12-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf |title=Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism |year=2004 |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-12-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://titan.iwu.edu/~econ/uer/articles/kevin_goldstein.pdf |title=Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism |year=2005 |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-12-28}}</ref>
| |
| − | However, one study suggests that suicide terrorism may be an exception to this general rule. Evidence regarding this particular method of terrorism reveals that every modern suicide campaign has targeted a democracy–a state with a considerable degree of political freedom.<ref name=tws11janbhhj>{{cite news
| |
| − | |author= Bruce Hoffman
| |
| − | |title= The Logic of Suicide Terrorism
| |
| − | |quote= The terrorists appear to be deliberately homing in on the few remaining places where Israelis thought they could socialize in peace.
| |
| − | |publisher= The Atlantic
| |
| − | |date= June 2003
| |
| − | |url= http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200306/hoffman
| |
| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref> The study suggests that concessions awarded to terrorists during the 1980s and 1990s for suicide attacks increased their frequency.<ref>Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1–19.</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies include [[ETA]] in Spain under [[Francisco Franco]],<ref name=tws11janfjlk>{{cite news
| |
| − | |title= Basque Terrorist Group Marks 50th Anniversary with New Attacks
| |
| − | |quote= Europe's longest-enduring terrorist group. This week, ETA (the initials stand for Basque Homeland and Freedom in Euskera, the Basque language)
| |
| − | |publisher= Time Magazine
| |
| − | |date= July 31, 2009
| |
| − | |url= http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1913931,00.html
| |
| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref> the [[Shining Path]] in Peru under [[Alberto Fujimori]],<ref name=tws11janaawsw>{{cite news
| |
| − | |title= Shining Path
| |
| − | |quote= The Shining Path, a faction of Peruvian militants, has resurfaced in the remote corners of the Andes. The war against the group, which took nearly 70,000 lives, supposedly ended in 2000. ... In the 1980s, the rebels were infamous for atrocities like planting bombs on donkeys in crowded markets, assassinations and other terrorist tactics.
| |
| − | |publisher= The New York Times
| |
| − | |date= March 18, 2009
| |
| − | |url= http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/organizations/s/shining_path/index.html
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| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | | first=Simon
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| − | | last=Romero
| |
| − | }}</ref> the [[Kurdistan Workers Party]] when [[Turkey]] was ruled by military leaders and the [[African National Congress|ANC]] in South Africa.<ref name=tws11jangvdf>{{cite news
| |
| − | |title= 1983: Car bomb in South Africa kills 16
| |
| − | |quote= The outlawed anti-apartheid group the African National Congress has been blamed for the attack ... He said the explosion was the "biggest and ugliest" terrorist incident since anti-government violence began in South Africa 20 years ago.
| |
| − | |publisher= BBC
| |
| − | |date= 2005-05-20
| |
| − | |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/20/newsid_4326000/4326975.stm
| |
| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref> Democracies, such as the United Kingdom, United States, [[Israel]], [[Indonesia]], India, and the [[Philippines]], have also experienced domestic terrorism.
| |
| − | | |
| − | While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a dilemma: whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties.<ref name=tws11janetrr>{{cite news
| |
| − | |author= Rick Young
| |
| − | |title= PBS Frontline: 'Spying on the Home Front'
| |
| − | |quote= ... we and Frontline felt that it was important to look more comprehensively at the post-9/11 shift to prevention and the dilemma we all now face in balancing security and privacy.
| |
| − | |publisher= ''PBS: Frontline''
| |
| − | |date= May 16, 2007
| |
| − | |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2007/05/03/DI2007050301142.html
| |
| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref> This dilemma, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to delegitimize the state.<ref>shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State," Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp. 467.</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Religious terrorism==
| |
| − | {{Main|Religious terrorism}}
| |
| − | '''Religious terrorism''' is terrorism performed by groups or individuals, the motivation of which is typically rooted in the [[faith]] based tenets. Terrorist acts throughout the centuries have been performed on religious grounds with the hope to either spread or enforce a system of belief, viewpoint or opinion.<ref name=tws11jan>{{cite news
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| − | |author= Peter Rose
| |
| − | |title= Disciples of religious terrorism share one faith
| |
| − | |quote= Almost everyone Stern interviewed said they were doing God's will, defending the faithful against the lies and evil deeds of their enemies. Such testimonials, she suggests, "often mask a deeper kind of angst and a deeper kind of fear – fear of a godless universe, of chaos, of loose rules, and of loneliness."
| |
| − | |publisher= Christian Science Monitor
| |
| − | |date= August 28, 2003
| |
| − | |url= http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0828/p15s02-bogn.html/(page)/2
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| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref> Religious terrorism does not in itself necessarily define a specific religious standpoint or view, but instead usually defines an individual or a group view or interpretation of that belief system's teachings.
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| − | | |
| − | ==Perpetrators==
| |
| − | The [[perpetrator]]s of acts of terrorism can be individuals, groups, or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive [[Covert cell|cells]], highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as the [[September 11 attacks]], the [[7 July 2005 London bombings|London underground bombing]], and the [[2002 Bali bombing]] were planned and carried out by a close clique, composed of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient [[telecommunications]] to succeed where others had failed.<ref>{{cite book |last = Sageman |first = Mark |title = Understanding Terror Networks |publisher = U. of Pennsylvania Press |year = 2004 |location = Philadelphia, PA |pages = 166–67 |isbn = 978-0812238082}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Over the years, many people have attempted to come up with a [[terrorist profile]] to attempt to explain these individuals' actions through their psychology and social circumstances. Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists. Some security organizations designate these groups as ''violent non-state actors''.<ref name=williams_isn>{{cite web |url=http://se2.isn.ch/serviceengine/FileContent?serviceID=ISFPub&fileid=8EEBA9FE-478E-EA2C-AA15-32FC9A59434A&lng=en |title=Violent Non-State Actors and National and International Security |accessdate=2009-02-14 |year=2008 |first=Phil |last=Williams}}</ref> A 2007 study by economist [[Alan B. Krueger]] found that terrorists were less likely to come from an impoverished background (28% vs. 33%) and more likely to have at least a high-school education (47% vs. 38%). Another analysis foubnd only 16% or terrorists came from impoverished families, vs. 30% of male Palestinians, and over 60% had gone beyond high school, vs. 15% of the populace.<ref>{{cite book
| |
| − | |title=Superfreakonomics: global cooling, patriotic prostitutes, and why suicide bombers should buy life insurance
| |
| − | |author1=Steven D. Levitt
| |
| − | |author2=Stephen J. Dubner
| |
| − | |publisher=William Morrow
| |
| − | |year=2009
| |
| − | |isbn=9780060889579
| |
| − | |pages=62, 231}} citing Alan B. Krueger, ''What Makes a Terrorist'' (Princeton University Press 2007); Claude Berrebi, "Evidence About the Link Between Education, Poverty, and Terrorism among Palestinians," Princeton University Industrial Relations Section Working paper, 2003 and Krueger and Jita Maleckova, "Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'' 17 no. 4 (Fall 2003 / 63.</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | To avoid detection, a terrorist will look, dress, and behave normally until executing the assigned mission. Some claim that attempts to profile terrorists based on personality, physical, or sociological traits are not useful.<ref name=tws11janhfgf>{{cite news
| |
| − | |author= Sean Coughlan
| |
| − | |title= Fear of the unknown
| |
| − | |quote= A passenger on the flight, Heath Schofield, explained the suspicions: "It was a return holiday flight, full of people in flip-flops and shorts. There were just two people in the whole crowd who looked like they didn't belong there."
| |
| − | |publisher= BBC News
| |
| − | |date= 21 August 2006
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| − | |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/5270500.stm
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| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref> The physical and behavioral description of the terrorist could describe almost any normal person.<ref name="Library of Congress">[http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/pdf-files/Soc_Psych_of_Terrorism.pdf Library of Congress] – Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism.</ref> However, the majority of terrorist attacks are carried out by military age men, aged 16–40.<ref name="Library of Congress"/>
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| − | | |
| − | ===Terrorist groups===
| |
| − | [[File:Daschle letter FBI.jpg.png|thumb|right|alt=Picture of the front of an addressed envelope to Senator Daschle.|There is speculation that [[anthrax]] mailed inside letters to U.S. politicians was the work of a ''lone wolf'' terrorist.]]
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| − | {{Main|List of designated terrorist organizations|Lone wolf (terrorism)}}
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| − | | |
| − | ===State sponsors===
| |
| − | {{Main|State-sponsored terrorism}}
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| − | A state can sponsor terrorism by funding or harboring a terrorist organization. Opinions as to which acts of violence by states consist of state-sponsored terrorism vary widely. When states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist, they rarely acknowledge them as such.
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| − | | |
| − | ===State terrorism===
| |
| − | {{Main|State terrorism}}
| |
| − | {{Cquote2|Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur is regarded with shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims.|[[Derrick Jensen]]<ref>''Endgame: Resistance'', by Derrick Jensen, Seven Stories Press, 2006, ISBN 158322730X, p. IX.</ref>}}
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| − | | |
| − | As with "terrorism" the concept of "state terrorism" is controversial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eprints.unimelb.edu.au/archive/00000137/01/Primorat.pdf |title=Pds Sso |publisher=Eprints.unimelb.edu.au |date= |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref> The Chairman of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has stated that the Committee was conscious of 12 international Conventions on the subject, and none of them referred to State terrorism, which was not an international legal concept. If States abused their power, they should be judged against international conventions dealing with [[war crimes]], international [[human rights]] and [[international humanitarian law]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/SC7276.doc.htm |title=Addressing Security Council, Secretary-General Calls On Counter-Terrorism Committee To Develop Long-Term Strategy To Defeat Terror |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref> Former [[United Nations]] [[Secretary-General]] [[Kofi Annan]] has said that it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The [[use of force by states]] is already thoroughly regulated under international law"<ref>{{cite web |last=Lind |first=Michael |url=http://newamerica.net/publications/articles/2005/the_legal_debate_is_over_terrorism_is_a_war_crime |title=The Legal Debate is Over: Terrorism is a War Crime | The New America Foundation |publisher=Newamerica.net |date=2005-05-02 |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref> However, he also made clear that, "regardless of the differences between governments on the question of definition of terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent civilians, regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/sg-teheran26.htm |title=Press conference with Kofi Annan & FM Kamal Kharrazi |publisher=Un.org |date=2002-01-26 |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | State terrorism has been used to refer to terrorist acts by governmental agents or forces. This involves the use of state resources employed by a state's foreign policies, such as using its military to directly perform acts of terrorism. Professor of [[Political Science]] Michael Stohl cites the examples that include Germany’s bombing of London and the U.S. atomic destruction of [[Hiroshima]] during World War II. He argues that “the use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents." They also cite the [[First strike]] option as an example of the "terror of coercive diplomacy" as a form of this, which holds the world hostage with the implied threat of using nuclear weapons in "crisis management." They argue that the institutionalized form of terrorism has occurred as a result of changes that took place following [[World War II]]. In this analysis, state terrorism exhibited as a form of [[foreign policy]] was shaped by the presence and use of [[weapons of mass destruction]], and that the legitimizing of such violent behavior led to an increasingly accepted form of this state behavior.<ref name=tws11jangbhh>{{cite news
| |
| − | |author= Michael Stohl
| |
| − | |title= The Superpowers and International Terror
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| − | |publisher= International Studies Association, Atlanta
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| − | |date= April 1, 1984
| |
| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
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| − | }}</ref><ref name=tws11jangbhhss>{{cite news
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| − | |author= Michael Stohl
| |
| − | |title= Terrible beyond Endurance? The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism
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| − | |publisher= International Studies Association, Atlanta
| |
| − | |year= 1988
| |
| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref><ref name=tws11jangbhhss>{{cite news
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| − | |author= Michael Stohl
| |
| − | |title= The State as Terrorist: The Dynamics of Governmental Violence and Repression
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| − | |publisher= International Studies Association, Atlanta
| |
| − | |year= 1984
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| − | |page=49
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| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-808-1238-05, Berlin, Reichstagssitzung, Rede Adolf Hitler.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Picture of a man in a suit with a mustache who looks like Hitler speaking behind a microphone.| Some theorists suggest [[genocide]] or [[democide]] is a type of terrorism as committed by [[Adolf Hitler]].
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| − | State terrorism has also been used to describe peacetime actions by governmental agents such as the bombing of [[Pan Am Flight 103]].<ref name=tws11janreqw>{{cite news
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| − | |author= Michael Slackman
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| − | |title= New Status in Africa Empowers an Ever-Eccentric Qaddafi
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| − | |quote= Once vilified for promoting state terrorism, Colonel Qaddafi is now courted.
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| − | |publisher= The New York Times
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| − | |date= March 22, 2009
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| − | |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/23/world/africa/23libya.html
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| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref> [[Charles Stewart Parnell]] described [[William Ewart Gladstone]]'s [[Irish Coercion Act]] as terrorism in his "no-Rent manifesto" in 1881, during the [[Irish Land War]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C04E6DF113CEE3ABC4951DFB667838A699FDE |title=The "No Rent" Manifesto.; Text Of The Document Issued By The Land Leag... – Article Preview – The |publisher=New York Times |date=2009-08-02 |accessdate=2009-08-10}}</ref> The concept is also used to describe [[political repression]]s by governments against their own civilian population with the purpose to incite fear. For example, taking and executing civilian [[hostage]]s or [[extrajudicial killing|extrajudicial elimination]] campaigns are commonly considered "terror" or terrorism, for example during the [[Red Terror]] or [[Great Terror]].<ref name="Black">Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, [[Stéphane Courtois]], ''The [[Black Book of Communism]]: Crimes, Terror, Repression'', [[Harvard University Press]], 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0-674-07608-7</ref> Such actions are often also described as [[democide]] or [[genocide]] which has been argued to be equivalent to state terrorism.<ref name=Kisangani2007>{{cite journal |author = Kisangani, E. |year = 2007 |title = The Political Economy Of State Terror |volume = 18 |issue = 5 |pages = 405–414 |url = http://www.informaworld.com/index/781318312.pdf |accessdate = 2008-04-02 |journal = Defence and Peace Economics |doi = 10.1080/10242690701455433 |format=PDF |last2 = Nafziger |first2 = E. Wayne}}</ref> Empirical studies on this have found that democracies have little democide.<ref>Death by Government By R.J. Rummel New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994. Online links: [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE1.HTM][http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.FIG23.4.GIF][http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/POWER.FIG2.GIF]</ref><ref>''[http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/genocide/ No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust?]{{Dead link|date=July 2008}}'', Barbara Harff, 2003.</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | ==Funding==
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| − | [[State-sponsored terrorism|State sponsors]] have constituted a major form of funding; for example, [[PLO]], [[DFLP]] and some other terrorist groups were funded by the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=ncua/><ref name=tws11jan4r67>{{cite news
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| − | |author= Jeremy Lott
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| − | |title= Tripped Up
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| − | |quote= and before the Soviet Union fell, terrorist organizations were funding themselves through subsidies from Communist governments
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| − | |publisher= Reason Magazine
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| − | |date= October 6, 2004
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| − | |url= http://reason.com/archives/2004/10/06/tripped-up
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| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | "[[Revolutionary tax]]" is another major form of funding, and essentially a euphemism for "[[protection money]]".<ref name=ncua>[http://www.ncua.gov/letters/2002/02-CU-14.pdf Detection of Terrorist Financing], U.S. National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), 2002.</ref> Revolutionary taxes are typically extorted from businesses, and they also "play a secondary role as one other means of intimidating the target population".<ref name=ncua/>
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| − | | |
| − | Other major sources of funding include [[kidnapping]] for ransoms, [[smuggling]], [[fraud]] and [[robbery]].<ref name=ncua/>
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| − | | |
| − | ==Tactics==
| |
| − | {{Main|Tactics of terrorism}}
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| − | [[File:WallStexplosion1920.jpg|thumb|right|alt=People in suits look on at bodies covered with tarps.|The [[Wall Street bombing]] at noon on September 16, 1920 killed thirty-eight people and injured several hundred. The perpetrators were never caught.]]
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| − | Terrorism is a form of [[asymmetric warfare]], and is more common when direct [[conventional warfare]] won't be effective because forces vary greatly in power.<ref name=tws11jan1q21q>{{cite news
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| − | |title= Hackers warn high street chains
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| − | |quote= That's the beauty of asymmetric warfare. You don't need a lot of money, or an army of people.
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| − | |publisher= BBC News
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| − | |date= 25 April 2008
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| − | |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7366995.stm
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| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political [[conflict]]. The type of conflict varies widely; historical examples include:
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| − | * [[Secession]] of a territory to form a new sovereign state
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| − | * Dominance of territory or resources by various [[ethnic groups]]
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| − | * Imposition of a particular form of government
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| − | * Economic deprivation of a population
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| − | * Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
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| − | * Religious fanaticism
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| − | | |
| − | Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity, usually using [[explosives]] or [[poison]].<ref>Suicide bombings are the most effective terrorist act in this regard. See the following works:
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| − | *{{cite news
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| − | | last = Hoffman
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| − | | first = Bruce
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| − | | authorlink = Bruce Hoffman
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| − | | title = The Logic of Suicide Terrorism
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| − | | work = [[Atlantic Monthly]]
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| − | | volume = 291
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| − | | issue = 5
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| − | | pages = 40–47
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| − | | date = June 2003
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| − | | url = http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200306/hoffman}}
| |
| − | *{{cite journal
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| − | | last = Pape
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| − | | first = Robert A.
| |
| − | | authorlink = Robert Pape
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| − | | title = The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism
| |
| − | | journal = [[American Political Science Review]]
| |
| − | | volume = 97
| |
| − | | issue = 3
| |
| − | | pages = 343–361
| |
| − | | url = http://www.danieldrezner.com/research/guest/Pape1.pdf
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| − | | format = reprint}}
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| − | *{{cite book
| |
| − | | last = Ricolfi
| |
| − | | first = Luca
| |
| − | | year = 2005
| |
| − | | contribution = Palestinians 1981–2003
| |
| − | | editor-last = Gambetta
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| − | | editor-first = Diego
| |
| − | | editor-link =
| |
| − | | title = Making Sense of Suicide Missions
| |
| − | | edition = 1st
| |
| − | | publication-place = Oxford, UK
| |
| − | | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| |
| − | | pages = 76–130
| |
| − | | isbn = 9780199276998}}
| |
| − | Cited in {{cite book
| |
| − | | last = Richardson
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| − | | first = Louise
| |
| − | | authorlink = Louise Richardson
| |
| − | | title = What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Terrorist Threat
| |
| − | | publisher = [[Hodder Headline|John Murray]]
| |
| − | | year = 2006
| |
| − | | location = London, UK
| |
| − | | page = 33
| |
| − | | isbn = 0719563062}}</ref> There is concern about terrorist attacks employing [[weapons of mass destruction]]. Terrorist organizations usually methodically plan attacks in advance, and may train participants, plant undercover agents, and raise money from supporters or through [[organized crime]]. Communication may occur through modern [[telecommunications]], or through old-fashioned methods such as [[courier]]s.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Responses==
| |
| − | {{Main|Responses to terrorism}}
| |
| − | Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the [[political spectrum]] and reassessments of [[value system|fundamental values]]. The term '''counter-terrorism''' has a narrower connotation, implying that it is directed at terrorist actors.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Specific types of responses include:
| |
| − | * Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced police powers
| |
| − | * Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers
| |
| − | * Preemptive or reactive military action
| |
| − | * Increased intelligence and surveillance activities
| |
| − | * Preemptive humanitarian activities
| |
| − | * More permissive interrogation and detention policies
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Mass media==
| |
| − | Media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media.<ref>The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment [[Paul Wilkinson (professor)|Paul Wilkinson]]. Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.9, No.2 (Summer 1997), pp.51–64 Published by Frank Cass, London.</ref> Others consider terrorism itself to be a symptom of a highly controlled mass media, which does not otherwise give voice to alternative viewpoints, a view expressed by [[Paul Watson]] who has stated that controlled media is responsible for terrorism, because "you cannot get your information across any other way". Paul Watson's organization [[Sea Shepherd]] has itself been branded "[[eco-terrorist]]", although it claims to have not caused any casualties.
| |
| − | | |
| − | The internet has created a new channel for groups to spread their messages. This has created a cycle of measures and counter measures by groups in support of and in opposition to terrorist movements. The United Nations has created its own online counter-terrorism resource.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/ |title= Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee] |date= |accessdate=2009-06-17}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | The mass media will, on occasion, censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage organizations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media. Conversely [[James F. Pastor]] explains the significant relationship between terrorism and the media, and the underlying benefit each receives from the other.<ref>{{cite book |title=Terrorism & Public Safety Policing: Implications of the Obama Presidency |author=Pastor, James F. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4398-1580-9 |publisher= Taylor & Francis |location=New York, NY}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | {{epigraph
| |
| − | | quote =There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media [[wikt:gestalt|gestalt]]. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related.
| |
| − | | cite =Novelist [[William Gibson]]<ref>[http://www.williamgibsonbooks.com/blog/2004_10_01_archive.asp his blog William Gibson's blog], October 31, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>
| |
| − | }}
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==History==
| |
| − | [[File:Number of terrorist incidents 2009.png|thumb|200px|Number of terrorist incidents 2009 (January–June)]]
| |
| − | {{Main|History of terrorism}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | The term "terrorism" was originally used to describe the actions of the [[Jacobin Club]] during the "[[Reign of Terror]]" in the [[French Revolution]]. "Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible," said Jacobin leader [[Maximilien Robespierre]]. In 1795, [[Edmund Burke]] denounced the Jacobins for letting "thousands of those hell-hounds called Terrorists...loose on the people" of France.<ref name=tws11jan14432>{{cite news
| |
| − | |author= Edmund Burke
| |
| − | |title= Letter No. IV. To the Earl Fitzwilliam
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| − | |quote= Thousands of those Hell-hounds called Terrorists, whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution, as the Satellites of Tyranny, are let loose on the people.
| |
| − | |publisher= Library of Economics and Liberty
| |
| − | |year= 1795
| |
| − | |url= http://www.econlib.org/library/LFBooks/Burke/brkSWv3c4.html
| |
| − | |pages=308–76, 371
| |
| − | |accessdate= 2010-01-11
| |
| − | }}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | In January 1858, Italian patriot [[Felice Orsini]] threw three bombs in an attempt to assassinate French Emperor [[Napoleon III]].<ref name="Crenshaw38">Crenshaw, Martha, ''Terrorism in Context'', p. 38.</ref> Eight bystanders were killed and 142 injured.<ref name="Crenshaw38"/> The incident played a crucial role as an inspiration for the development of the early Russian terrorist groups.<ref name="Crenshaw38"/> [[Russians|Russian]] [[Sergey Nechayev]], who founded People's Retribution in 1869, described himself as a "terrorist", an early example of the term being employed in its modern meaning.<ref name="Crenshaw77"/> Nechayev's story is told in fictionalized form by [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] in the novel ''[[The Possessed (novel)|The Possessed]]''. German anarchist writer [[Johann Most]] dispensed "advice for terrorists" in the 1880s.<ref name="Crenshaw44">Crenshaw, p. 44.</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==See also==
| |
| − | | |
| − | {{top}}
| |
| − | * [[Aircraft hijacking]]
| |
| − | * [[Airport security]]
| |
| − | * [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives]] (ATF)
| |
| − | * [[Christian Terrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA)
| |
| − | * [[Communist terrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[Counter-terrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[Crimes against humanity]]
| |
| − | * [[Cyber-terrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[Department of Homeland Security]] (DHS)
| |
| − | * [[Domestic terrorism in the United States]]
| |
| − | * [[Eco-terrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[Extremism]]
| |
| − | * [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI)
| |
| − | * [[Federal Air Marshal Service]] (FAMS)
| |
| − | * [[Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[Hijacking]]
| |
| − | * [[Hindu terrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[Immigration and Customs Enforcement]] (ICE)
| |
| − | * [[Insurgency]]
| |
| − | {{middle}}
| |
| − | * [[International Criminal Police Organization]] (Interpol)
| |
| − | * [[Islamic Terrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[Jewish Terrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[List of designated terrorist organizations]]
| |
| − | * [[List of terrorist incidents]]
| |
| − | * [[Narcoterrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[Patriot Act]]
| |
| − | * [[PDD-62]]
| |
| − | * [[Propaganda by deed]]
| |
| − | * [[S.W.A.T]]
| |
| − | * [[Special forces]]
| |
| − | * [[Strategy of tension]]
| |
| − | * [[Suicide attack]]
| |
| − | * [[Terrorism Information Awareness]] Program
| |
| − | * [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] (CBP)
| |
| − | * [[Unconventional warfare]]
| |
| − | * [[United States Secret Service]]
| |
| − | * [[VNSA]]
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| − | * [[War on Terrorism]]
| |
| − | | |
| − | {{bottom}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | '''[[State terrorism]]:'''
| |
| − | * [[Pakistani state terrorism]]
| |
| − | * [[State terrorism by Iran]]
| |
| − | * [[State terrorism and Russia]]
| |
| − | * [[State terrorism and the United States]]
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==References==
| |
| | {{reflist|2}} | | {{reflist|2}} |
| | | | |
| − | ==External links== | + | ==Enlaces externos== |
| | | | |
| | {{wikiquote}} | | {{wikiquote}} |
| | {{Commons category|Terrorism}} | | {{Commons category|Terrorism}} |
| | ;UN conventions | | ;UN conventions |
| − | * [[United Nations]]:[http://untreaty.un.org/English/Terrorism.asp Conventions on Terrorism] | + | * [[Naciones Unidas]]:[http://untreaty.un.org/English/Terrorism.asp Conventions on Terrorism] |
| − | * [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]]: {{cite web |url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html |title= Conventions against terrorism |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070805001945/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html |archivedate=2007-08-05}} "There are 12 major multilateral conventions and protocols related to states' responsibilities for combating terrorism. But many states are not yet party to these legal instruments, or are not yet implementing them." | + | * [[ONUDC]]: {{cite web |url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html |title= Conventions against terrorism |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070805001945/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html |archivedate=2007-08-05}} "There are 12 major multilateral conventions and protocols related to states' responsibilities for combating terrorism. But many states are not yet party to these legal instruments, or are not yet implementing them." |
| | * [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/terrorism/index.html UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime – Terrorism Prevention] | | * [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/terrorism/index.html UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime – Terrorism Prevention] |
| | | | |
| − | ;Terrorism and international humanitarian law
| + | [[Category:Terrorismo]] |
| − | *[http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/terrorism Terrorism and international humanitarian law], International Committee of the Red Cross
| + | [[Categoría:Derecho Internacional Humanitario]] |
| − | | |
| − | ;News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism
| |
| − | * [http://insurgencyresearchgroup.wordpress.com/ Insurgency Research Group] – Multi-expert blog dedicated to the study of terrorism, insurgency and the development of counter-insurgency policy.
| |
| − | * [http://osint.isria.com/ A reliable and daily updated Open Sources Center that includes a "Terrorism" section.] by [[ISRIA]].
| |
| − | * [http://www.jihadmonitor.org/ Jihad Monitor]
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| − | * [http://ctc.usma.edu/default.asp Combating Terrorism Center at Westpoint]
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| − | | |
| − | {{War on Terrorism|state=collapsed}}
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| − | {{abuse}}
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| − | [[Category:Terrorism| ]] | |
| − | [[Category:Fear]]
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| − | [[Category:Abuse]]
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| − | [[Category:Dispositional beliefs]]
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| − | [[Category:Organized crime]]
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| − | [[ar:إرهاب]]
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| − | [[an:Terrorismo]]
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| − | [[zh-min-nan:Khióng-pò͘-chú-gī]]
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| − | [[be:Тэрарызм]]
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| − | [[be-x-old:Тэрарызм]]
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| − | [[bs:Terorizam]]
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| − | [[bg:Тероризъм]]
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| − | [[ca:Terrorisme]]
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| − | [[ceb:Terorismo]]
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| − | [[cs:Terorismus]]
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| − | [[da:Terrorisme]]
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| − | [[gu:આતંકવાદ]] | |
| − | [[ko:테러리즘]]
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| − | [[hy:Ահաբեկչություն]]
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| − | [[ka:ტერორიზმი]]
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Según OCHA, mientras que no existe una definición internacional de terrorismo hasta el momento, es un concepto generalmente entendido como un acto o actos criminales que tienen la intención de inflingir heridas dramáticas y mortales sobre civiles y crear un ambiente de miedo, generalmente para avanzar un propósito político o ideológico (que sea secular o religioso). El terrorismo tipicamente se lleva a cabo por parte de grupos sub-nacionales o transnacionales, pero también se lo ha practicado en gobiernos un instrumento de control.
Según otra definición, el terrorismo es el uso sistemático del miedo, especialmente como un medio de coercion.<ref>Plantilla:Cite web</ref>
Aunque la comunidad internacional no ha podido formular una definición debajo de la ley criminal con fuerza.<ref>Angus Martyn, The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September,</ref><ref>Thalif Deen. POLITICS: U.N. Member States Struggle to Define Terrorism, Inter Press Service, 25 de julio, 2005.</ref> Las definiciones más comunes del terrorismo solamente hacen referencia a esos actos violentos con la intención de crear miedo, son perpetrados para un objetivo ideológico, y intencionalmente tienen como blanco a no combatientes (civiles).
Algunas definiciones agregan actos de violencia y guerra. La historia de las organizaciones terroristas sugiere que no escogen al terrorismo por su eficiencia política.<ref name="Abrahm">Plantilla:Cite journal</ref> Terroristas individuales tienden ser motivados más por un sentimiento de solidaridad social con otros miembros de su organización que por plataformas políticas u objetivos estratégicos, cuales frecuentemente son borrosos o poco definidos.<ref name="Abrahm"/>
La mera plabra "terrorismo" está cargado políticamente y emocionalmente,<ref name="Hoffman-1998-p31">Hoffman, Bruce "Inside Terrorism" Columbia University Press 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. p. 32. Ver análisis en el New York Times,Inside Terrorism.</ref> y esto refuerza la dificultad de ofrecer una definición precisa. Los estudios han encontrado a más de 100 definiciones del "terrorismo".<ref>Plantilla:Cite web</ref><ref>Schmid, Alex, y Jongman, Albert. Political Terrorism: A new guide to actors, authors, concepts, data bases, theories and literature. Amsterdam ; New York : North-Holland ; New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988.</ref> El concepto del terrorismo en sí puede ser controversial dado que frecuentemente se utiliza entre las autoridades estatales para deslegitimar a opositores políticos,<ref name=tws11janx33225/> y legitimar políticamente al uso de las fuerzas armadas del estado contra tales opositores (el uso de tal fuerza puede en sí ser descrito como "terror" por los opositores del estado).<ref name=tws11janx33225/><ref name=tws11jan757>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> Un termino menos político y emocional y más facil de definir es actor no estatal violento<ref name=tws11jan4eer>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> (aunque los alcances semántico de este termino incluye no solamente "terroristas," mientras que se excluye algunos individuos o grupos que previamente han sido descritos como "terroristas").
El terrorismo ha sido practicado por una amplia variedad de organizaciones políticas para poder avanzar a sus objetivos. Ha sido practicado desde la derecha y la izquierda, grupos nacionalistas, religiosas, revolucionarios y por gobiernos en el poder.<ref name="britannica">Plantilla:Cite web</ref> Una forma es el uso de la violencia contra no combatientes para el fin de ganar publicidad para un grupo, una causa o un individuo.<ref>Plantilla:Cite web</ref>
Origen del termino
El "terror" se origina en la palabra terrere en el latín, que significa "espantar".<ref name=tws11janrdw>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> La palabra terror cimbricus fue un panico y un estado de emergencia en Roma antigua en respuesta al acercamiento de los guerreros del tribu cimbri en 105 a.c. Los jacobines citan a esta precedente cuando crean el 'reino del terror' durante la revolución francesa.<ref name=tws11janr987>Plantilla:Cite news</ref><ref name=tws11jane435>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> After the Jacobins lost power, the word "terrorist" became a term of abuse.<ref name=tws11janx33225>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> Although the Reign of Terror was imposed by a government, in modern times "terrorism" usually refers to the killing of innocent people<ref name=tws11jan1q22>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> by a private group in such a way as to create a media spectacle.<ref name=tws11janteer>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> Este significado se origina con Sergey Nechayev, quien se autollamó un "terrorista".<ref name="Crenshaw77">Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 77.</ref> Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group "People's Retribution" (Народная расправа) in 1869.
En Noviembre del 2004, un informe del Secretario General de las Naciones Unidas describió el terrorismo como cualquier acto "con la intención de causar la muerte o heridos serios corporales a los civiles o no combatientes con el propósito de intimidar una población o forzar a un gobierno o una organización internacional hacer o abstener de hacer cualquier acto..<ref>Plantilla:Cite web</ref>
Definición
La definición del terrorismo ha sido controversial. Varios sistemas legales y agencias de gobierno utilizan diferentes definiciones en su legislación nacional. Además, la comunidad internacional ha sido lento en formular una definición legal de este crimen. Estas dificultades surgen del hecho que el termino "terrorismo" está cargado, políticamente y emocionalmente.<ref name="Hoffman-1998-p32">Hoffman (1998), p. 32,ver Inside Terrorism.</ref> En respecto a esto, Angus Martyn, frente al parlamento australiano, dijo que "la comunidad internacional nunca ha podido desarrollar una definición comprehensiva aceptada del terrorismo. Duranto los años 70 y 80, las Naciones Unidas intentó definir el termino pero falló principalmente por las diferencias de opinión entre varios miembros sobre el uso de la violencia en el contexto de conflictos sobre liberación nacional y autodeterminación."<ref>Martyn (2002)</ref> Estas divergencias lo ha hecho imposible para que las Naciones Unidas concluye una definición del terrorismo en la ley criminal.<ref>Diaz-Paniagua (2008), p. 47.</ref> Sin embargo, la comunidad internacional ha adoptada una serie de convenciones que definen y criminalizan a varios tipos de actividades terroristas. Además, desde 1994, la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas ha condenada en ocasiones repetidas a actos terroristas utilizando la descripción política del terrorismo: "Actos criminales con la intención o cálculo de provocar un estado de terror entre el público general, un grupo de personas o personas particulares por motivos políticos son en toda circunstancia sin justificación, sin respecto a las condieraciones políticas, filosóficas, ideológicas, raciales, étnicos, o de otro tipo que podría ser utilizado para justificarlos."<ref>1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60 ,"Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism," del 9 de diciembre, 1994, UN Doc. A/Res/60/49.</ref>
Bruce Hoffman, un experto reconocido en el tema, ha notado que:
Plantilla:Quote
Sin embargo, Hoffman mismo sí cree que se puede identificar algunas caracteristicas claves del terrorismo. Él propone que:
Plantilla:Quote
Otra definición propuesta por Carsten Bockstette del George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies, subraya los aspectos psicológicos o tácticos del terrorismo:
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Walter Laqueur, del Center for Strategic and International Studies, anota que "la única característica general del terrorismo con que todos están de acuerdo involucra a la violencia y la amenaza de la violencia".Plantilla:Citation needed Sin embargo, este criterio solo no produce una definición útil, dado que incluye a muchos actos violentos no tipicamente considerados como el terrorismo: guerra, desalojos, crimen organizado o incluso asalto.Plantilla:Citation needed La destrucción de la propiedad que no pone en peligro la vida no tipicamente se considera un crimen violento, pero algunos han descrito la destrucción de la propiedad como terrorismo<ref name=tws11jangjh>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> and Animal Liberation Front<ref name=tws11jan4132>Plantilla:Cite news</ref>
Los ataques terroristas tipicamente se llevan a cabo de tal forma como para poder maximizar la severidad y tiempo del impacto psicológica.<ref name=tws11janjlk>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> Cada acto de terrorismo es una "drama" diseñada tener un impacto sobre muchas audiencias grandes. Los terroristas también atacan a los simbolos nacionales,<ref name=tws11janbgfv>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> asi para mostrar su poder e intentar socovar la fundación de un país o una sociedad a que están opuestos. Esto puede tener un efecto negativo sobre un gobierno, mientras que aumenta el prestigio de la organización terrorista en cuestión y/o la ideología por atras del acto terrorista.<ref>Plantilla:Cite book</ref>
Los actos terroristas frecuentemente tienen un fin político.<ref name=tws11janwq32>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> El terrorismo es un tactico político, así como escribir cartas al editor o protestar, cual se utilizan los activistas cuando creen que ninguna otra táctica efectuará el tipo de cambio que desean. El cambio se desea tanto que el fracaso en alcanzar el cambio se ve como un resultado peor que las muertes de civiles. Esto es en donde frecuentemente la inter-relación entre el terrorismo religioso y la religión ocurre. Cuando una lucha política está integrada entre el marco de una lucha religiosa, tal como sobre el control de una tierra ancestral o un sitio sagrado como Israel y Jerusalén, fracasar en el objetivo político (el nacionalismo) resulta ser igual que un fracaso espiritual, cual, para los altamente comprometidos, es peor que su propio muerte o las muertes de civiles inocentes.<ref name=tws11jang555>Plantilla:Cite news</ref>
Muy frecuentemente, las victimas del terrorismo son objetivos no por ser amenazas, si no porque son "simbolos, herramientas, animales o seres corruptos" específicos que están ligados a un punto de vista específico del mundo que los terroristas poseen. Su sufrimiento logra los objetivos terroristas de infundir el miedo, haciendo difundir su mensaje entre una audiencia o de otra manera satisfaciendo las demandas de sus agendas radicales religiosas y políticas.<ref>Plantilla:Cite book</ref>
Algunas definiciones oficiales, gubernamentales, utilizan los criterios de la ilegitimidad o criminalidad del acto<ref>Plantilla:Cite web</ref>Plantilla:Better source para poder distinguir entre acciones autorizadas por un gobierno (y por ende "legal") y las acciones de otros actores, incluyendo a individuos o grupos pequeños. Utilizando este criterio, acciones que de otra manera calificaría como terrorismo no considerarían el terrorismo si tuvieron la aprobación del gobierno. Por ejemplo, bombardear una ciudad entera, con la intención de afectar el apoyo civil para una causa, no se consideraría ser terrorismo si fuera autorizado por un gobierno. Este criterio es inherentemente problemático y no se acepta universalmente por lo que rechaza la existencia de terrorismo de estado.<ref name=tws11jan6yu>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> Un mismo acto puede o no ser clasificado como terrorismo dependiendo en si su espónsor es un gobierno "legítimo". La legitimidad o legalidad es sujetivo, dependiendo en la perspectiva de un gobierno u otro; y se diverge del significado históricamente aceptado y el origen del termino.<ref>Plantilla:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Plantilla:Cite web</ref><ref>Plantilla:Cite web</ref><ref>Plantilla:Cite web</ref>
Entre la variedad de definiciones existentes hay varios que no reconocen a la posibilidad de un uso legítimo de la violencia por la parte de civiles frente a un invasor de un territorio ocupado. Otras definiciones nombraría a grupos terroristas unicamente un movimiento de resistencia que opone a un invasor con actos violentos que matan o hacen daños a los civiles o no combatientes de manera indiscriminada, asi permitiendo una distinción entre el uso legal e illegal de la violencia. Según Ali Khan, la distinción cae en un juicio político.<ref>Plantilla:Cite web</ref>
Uso negativo
Los terminos "terrorismo" y "terrorista" (alguien involucrado en el terrorismo) llevan conotaciones negativas fuertes.<ref name=tws11jangkll>Plantilla:Cite news</ref> Estos terminos frecuentemente están utilizadados como terminos políticos, para poder condenar violencia o la amenaza de violencia por ciertos actores como inmoral, indiscriminado, injustificado o para condenar un segmento amplio de la población.<ref>B'Tselem Head of ISA defines a terrorist as any Palestinian killed by Israel.</ref> Algunos llamados "terroristas" por sus opositores raramente se identifican como tal, y tipicamente utilizan a otros terminos especificos a su situación, tal como separatista, luchador para la liberación, liberador, revolucionario, vigilante, militante, paramilitar, guerrillero, patriota u otra palabra con un significado diferente. Jihadi, mujaheddin y fedayeen son palabras arabes que han entrado en uso general en el mundo. Es común que ambas partes en un conflicto describan al lado contrario como terroristas.<ref name=tws11janbcvc>Plantilla:Cite news</ref>
Sobre la pregunta de si algunos actos terroristas en particular, por ejemplo matar a civiles, puede ser justificado como el mal menor debajo de ciertas circunstancias, los filosofos han expresado varios puntos de vista: mientras que, según David Rodin, los filosofos utilitarianos pueden (en teoria) concebir de casos en donde la maldad del terrorismo es pasado por el bien que no podría ser logrado de una manera menos costoso en terminos morales, en la práctica "los efectos dañinos de romper la convención de inmunidad de no combatientes está pasado por el bien que puede ser logrado por actos particulares de terrorismo".<ref name="Robin">Rodin, David (2006). Terrorism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.</ref> Entre los filosofos no utilitarianos, Michael Walzer argumentó que el terrorismo puede ser justificado moralmente solamente con un solo caso: cuando "un pais o comunidad enfrente a la amenaza extrema de su destrucción completa y la única manera de que se preserva es con atacar intencionalmente a no combatientes, en ese caso tiene el caso moral para hacerlo".<ref name="Robin"/><ref name=tws11jannmllk>Plantilla:Cite news</ref>
En su libro, Inside Terrorism, Bruce Hoffman ofreció una explicación de por qué el termino terrorismo vuelve distorcionado:
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El significado negativo de la palabra se puede resumir en el aforismo, "El terrorista de un hombre es el luchador de liberació de otro."<ref name=tws11janbcvc/> Esto se ejemplifica cuando un grupo utilizando metodos irregulares es un aliado de un estado soberano frente a un enemigo mutuo, pero luego pierde su estátus con el estado y empieza a utilizar los mismos metodos frente a su ex-aliado. Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el Ejército del Pueblo Malaya Anti-Japonés estaba aliado con los británicos, pero luego su sucesor fue considerado "terrorista" por los británicos.<ref>Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army Britannica Concise.</ref><ref>Dr Chris Clark Plantilla:Cite web, 16 June 2003.</ref>
Algunos estados que son aliados cercanos, por motivos de historia, cultura y política, pueden tener desacuerdos sobre si miembros de ciertas organizaciones son terroristas o no. Por ejemplo, durante muchos años, muchas partes del gobierno estadounidense rehuso nombrar a miembros del ejército repúblicano irlandes como terrorista, a pesar de su oposición a un aliado cercano, bretaña.
Por estos motivos, muchos medios que desean mantener una reputación para la imparcialidad pueden terminar siendo cuidadoso en su uso del termino.<ref name="GUSG">Plantilla:Cite news</ref><ref>Plantilla:Cite web</ref>
Tipos de terrorismo
En 1975, el Instituto Nacional de Justicia de los EEUU formo el Comité Consejero Nacional sobre los Estándares y Goles de la Justicia Criminal. Entre los cinco ediciones que escribió el comité, fue Desordenes y Terrorismo, producido por la Fuerza Conjunta sobre Desordenes y Terrorismo debajo de H.H.A. Cooper, Director de la Fuerza.<ref>Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976).</ref>
Este grupo clasificó el terrorismo entre seis categorias:
- Desorden civil - una forma de violencia colectiva interfiriendo con la paz, la seguridad y el funcionamiento normal de la comunidad.
- Terrorismo político - comportamiento criminal violento diseñado principalmente a generar miedo en la comunidad, o un segmento sustancial de ella, para fines políticos
- Terrorismo no político - terrorismo sin fines políticos pero cual exhibe "un diseño conciente de crear y mantener un alto grado de miedo para propositos coercitivos, pero el fin es ganancia individual o colectiva en lugar de lograr un objetivo político."
- Cuasi-terrorismo - las actividades incidentales a la comisión de un crimen violento que son similares en forma y metodo al terrorismo auténtico pero cual sin embargo faltan su ingrediente esencial. No es el fin principal de los cuasi-terroristas inducir el terror en la víctima inmediata como es el caso en el terrorismo auténtico, pero el cuasi-terrorista utiliza las modalidades y técnicas del terrorista auténtica y produce consecuencias y reacciones similares.<ref name=tws11janvccx>Plantilla:Cite news</ref>Por ejemplo el fugitivo que toma un rehén que sea un cuasi-terrorista, que tiene metodologías parecidas al terrorista genuino pero con propósitos bastante distintos.
- Terrorismo político limitado - el terrorismo político genuino se caracteriza por una metodología revolucionaria; el terrorismo político limitado se hace referencia a "actos de terrorismo cual se compromete por motivos ideológicos o políticos pero que no sean parte de una campaña concertada de capturar control del estado soberano.
- Terrorismo de estado - "referiendose a las naciones que tienen un regimen basado sobre el miedo y la opresión que alcanzan al terrorismo o en tales proporciones." También puede hacer referencia al terrorismo estructural definido ampliamente como actos terroristas llevados a cabo por gobiernos en busqueda de objetivos políticos, frecuentemente como parte de su política extranjera.
Varias fuentes<ref>Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press, 2002.</ref><ref>Barry Scheider, Jim Davis, Avoiding the abyss: progress, shortfalls and the way ahaed in combatting the WMD threat, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009 p. 60.</ref> han definido una tipología más allá para el terrorismo:
- Terrorismo político
- Terrorismo sub-estatal
- Terrorismo revolucionario social
- Terrorismo nacionalista-separatista
- Terrorismo extremista religiosa
- Terrorismo fundamentalista religiosa
- Terrorismo de nuevas religiones
- Terrorismo de derecha
- Terrorismo de izquierda
- Terrorismo por tema
- Terrorismo de estado
- Terrorismo estatal o de regimen
- Terrorismo criminal
- Terrorismo patológico
Referencias
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Enlaces externos
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- UN conventions
